The Burden of Voting in the 2019 Canadian Federal Election

Appendix C

Table 1. Mean scores of the four burdens in 36 socio-demographic categories

		Registration	Decision	Going to Polling Station	Casting a Ballot
Age	18-24	.313	1.24	.596	.497
	25-34	.131	1.10	.498	.400
	35-44	.071	.973	.394	.353
	45-54	.061	.896	.346	.320
	55-64	.037	.851	.274	.266
	65+	.021	.790	.234	.213
Gender	Female	.079	1.08	.380	.330
	Male	.081	.812	.341	.310
Race	White	.068	.939	.339	.293
	Racial minority	.138	.958	.459	.433
Language	English/French	.080	.941	.363	.319
	Other	.146	.981	.381	.385
Country of Origin	Canada	.078	.954	.366	.319
	Abroad	.109	.888	.358	.339
Region	Atlantic	.102	.971	.362	.306
	Quebec	.068	1.07	.402	.388
	Ontario	.085	.916	.356	.302
	Prairies	.093	.814	.334	.286
	BC	.080	.974	.370	.332
	Territories	.090	.939	.352	.264
Education	Low	.157	.979	.468	.426
	Middle	.084	.953	.375	.330
	High	.054	.922	.315	.277
Income	Low	.173	1.08	.572	.439
	Middle	.078	.956	.366	.331
	High	.046	.835	.268	.251
Employment	Employed	.080	.946	.361	.327
	Unemployment	.204	1.06	.523	.446
	Student	.248	1.21	.564	.461
	Retired	.025	.832	.257	.231
	Caregiver	.121	1.04	.471	.404
	Other	.142	1.07	.578	.402
Marital Status	Married	.055	.884	.311	.292
	Not Married	.124	1.03	.445	.368
Mobility	Moved	.178	1.09	.534	.412
	Not Moved	.063	.917	.329	.300

Table 2. The Socio-Demographic Correlates of the Four Burdens (OLS estimations)

	(1)Registration	(2)Decision	(3)Going to Polling Station	(4)Casting a Ballot
18-24	0.191***	0.284***	0.134***	0.109***
	(0.007)	(0.021)	(0.013)	(0.012)
25-34	0.053***	0.173***	0.109***	0.062***
	(0.005)	(0.015)	(0.010)	(0.009)
35-44	0.008	0.066***	0.039***	0.029***
	(0.005)	(0.014)	(0.009)	(0.008)
55-64	-0.022***	-0.053***	-0.076***	-0.045***
	(0.005)	(0.015)	(0.009)	(0.009)
65+	-0.037***	-0.116***	-0.123***	-0.093***
	(0.006)	(0.019)	(0.012)	(0.011)
Female	-0.007*	0.253***	0.012*	0.006
	(0.003)	(0.009)	(0.006)	(0.005)
Racial Minority	0.025***	-0.021	0.075***	0.105***
	(0.004)	(0.012)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Other Language	0.013	0.055*	-0.023	0.006
	(0.009)	(0.026)	(0.017)	(0.016)
Foreign Born	0.037***	-0.035**	0.003	0.007
	(0.005)	(0.013)	(0.009)	(0.008)
Prairies	0.009*	-0.101***	-0.017*	-0.014*
	(0.004)	(0.013)	(0.008)	(0.007)
BC	0.000	0.065***	0.020*	0.036***
	(0.005)	(0.014)	(0.009)	(0.008)
Atlantic	0.025***	0.026	0.001	0.011
	(0.006)	(0.019)	(0.012)	(0.011)
Territories	0.004	0.043	-0.003	-0.051
	(0.019)	(0.056)	(0.035)	(0.033)
Quebec	-0.024***	0.133***	0.029***	0.076***
	(0.004)	(0.012)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Low Education	0.046***	-0.006	0.056***	0.069***
	(0.005)	(0.014)	(0.009)	(0.008)
High Education	-0.016***	-0.007	-0.034***	-0.039***
	(0.003)	(0.010)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Low Income	0.048***	0.047**	0.136***	0.060***
	(0.005)	(0.015)	(0.009)	(0.009)
High Income	-0.012***	-0.068***	-0.056***	-0.048***
	(0.004)	(0.011)	(0.007)	(0.006)
Unemployed	0.051***	0.058*	0.047**	0.018
	(0.009)	(0.025)	(0.016)	(0.015)
Student	0.012	-0.012	0.001	-0.011
	(0.009)	(0.028)	(0.018)	(0.016)
Retired	-0.002	0.021	0.019	-0.007
	(0.005)	(0.016)	(0.010)	(0.009)
Caregiver	0.025**	-0.027	0.057***	0.037*
	(0.009)	(0.027)	(0.017)	(0.016)
Not Married	0.001	0.025*	0.023***	0.002
	(0.003)	(0.010)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Moved	0.056***	0.058***	0.107***	0.042***
	(0.004)	(0.013)	(0.008)	(0.008)
Constant	0.041***	0.763***	0.299***	0.274***
	(0.005)	(0.015)	(0.010)	(0.009)
Observations	41836	41578	41893	41856
R2	0.067	0.053	0.061	0.042

Standard errors in parentheses
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Table 3. Mean scores of the four burdens in groups and subgroups - Indigenous

	Registration	Decision	Going to Polling Station	Casting a Ballot
Indigenous N = 3,172	.135	.949	.510	.440
Indigenous on reserve N = 316	.200	.832	.779	.648
Indigenous off reserve N = 2,855	.128	.962	.480	.417
Other N = 46,806	.079	.943	.355	.315

Table 3. Mean scores of the four burdens in groups and subgroups - Disability

	Registration	Decision	Going to Polling Station	Casting a Ballot
Disability N = 16, 139	.120	1.05	.500	.412
Moderate disability N = 12, 057	.103	1.03	.428	.373
Severe disability N = 4, 082	.172	1.11	.718	.532
No disability N = 33, 846	.065	.890	.300	.280

Table 3. Mean scores of the four burdens in groups and subgroups - Never voted before

	Registration	Decision	Going to Polling Station	Casting a Ballot
Never voted before N = 4,225	.443	1.29	.712	.612
Became a Canadian citizen after 2015 N = 103	.166	.989	.495	.460
First-time electors (aged 18–21) N = 1,397	.272	1.14	.535	.432
Abstainer N = 2,725	.551	1.39	.818	.722
Voted before N = 45,488	.050	.911	.332	.296

Table 3. Mean scores of the four burdens in groups and subgroups - NEET

	Registration	Decision	Going to Polling Station	Casting a Ballot
NEET N = 1,125	.308	1.21	.613	.539
Not NEET N = 48,337	.077	.937	.357	.316

Table 4. The socio-demographic and group correlates of registration burden (OLS estimations)

Registration	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
18-24	0.193***	0.193***	0.191***	0.192***	0.056***	0.116***	0.186***
	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.007)
25-34	0.054***	0.054***	0.055***	0.055***	0.042***	0.040***	0.049***
	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
35-44	0.009	0.009	0.009	0.010*	0.001	-0.001	0.008
	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
55-64	-	-	-	-	-0.016**	-0.015**	-
	-0.023***	-0.023***	-0.021***	-0.021***	-	-	-0.022***
	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
65+	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-0.038***	-0.038***	-0.037***	-0.035***	-0.027***	-0.025***	-0.037***
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Female	-0.008*	-0.008*	-0.009**	-0.009**	-0.008*	-0.008**	-0.007*
	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)
Racial Minority	-	-	0.024***	0.024***	0.013***	0.013***	0.025***
	-	-	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Foreign Born	0.047***	0.047***	0.039***	0.039***	0.019***	0.017***	0.037***
	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.005)
Prairies	0.008	0.008	0.009*	0.009*	0.011**	0.011**	0.009*
	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
BC	-0.000	-0.000	0.000	0.001	0.002	0.001	0.000
	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Atlantic	0.024***	0.024***	0.026***	0.026***	0.026***	0.025***	0.025***
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Territories	0.002	0.002	0.005	0.005	0.001	0.000	0.004
	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.018)	(0.019)
Quebec	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-0.024***	-0.024***	-0.021***	-0.021***	-0.021***	-0.020***	-0.024***
	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Low Education	0.046***	0.046***	0.044***	0.044***	0.026***	0.024***	0.045***
	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.005)
High Education	-	-	-	-	-0.006	-0.009**	-
	-0.015***	-0.015***	-0.014***	-0.013***	-	-	-0.016***
	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)
Low Income	0.049***	0.049***	0.044***	0.042***	0.047***	0.040***	0.049***
	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
High Income	-	-	-0.010**	-0.009*	-	-0.008*	-
	-0.013***	-0.013***	-	-	-0.012***	-	-0.013***
	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Unemployed	0.052***	0.052***	0.048***	0.047***	0.041***	0.038***	0.032**
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.010)
Student	0.013	0.013	0.012	0.013	-0.007	0.012	0.015
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Retired	-0.003	-0.003	-0.004	-0.005	-0.004	-0.004	-0.003
	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Caregiver	0.025**	0.025**	0.024*	0.022*	0.018*	0.015	0.010
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.010)
Other	0.040***	0.040***	0.032***	0.025**	0.040***	0.040***	0.040***
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.008)	(0.009)
Not Married	0.002	0.002	0.001	0.001	-0.001	0.002	0.002
	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.003)
Moved	0.056***	0.056***	0.055***	0.055***	0.055***	0.051***	0.056***
	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Indigenous	0.023***	-	-	-	-	-	-
	(0.006)	-	-	-	-	-	-
Indigenous on reserve	-	0.032	-	-	-	-	-
	-	(0.020)	-	-	-	-	-
Indigenous off reserve	-	0.023***	-	-	-	-	-
	-	(0.007)	-	-	-	-	-
Disability	-	-	0.026***	-	-	-	-
	-	-	(0.003)	-	-	-	-
Moderate Disability	-		-	0.020***	-	-	-
	-	-	-	(0.004)	-	-	-
Severe Disability	-		-	0.050***	-	-	-
	-	-	-	(0.006)	-	-	-
Never voted before	-		-	-	0.302***	-	-
	-	-	-	-	(0.007)	-	-
New Canadians	-		-	-	-	0.051	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.033)	-
First-time electors (aged 18–21)	-		-	-	-	0.063***	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.012)	-
Abstainer	-		-	-	-	0.391***	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.007)	-
NEET	-		-	-	-	-	0.053***
	-	-	-	-	-	-	(0.014)
Constant	0.044***	0.044***	0.032***	0.032***	0.035***	0.033***	0.042***
	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Observations	41836	41835	41832	41832	41691	41691	41836
R2	0.067	0.067	0.069	0.069	0.111	0.127	0.068

Standard errors in parentheses
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Note: Reference categories are the following: Age: 45–54; Gender: Male; Racial Minority: White; Other Language: English/French; Foreign Born: Born in Canada; Regions: Ontario; Education: Medium Education; Income: Medium; Employment: Employed; Not Married: Married; Moved: Not Moved; Indigenous: Not Indigenous; Indigenous on reserve, Indigenous off reserve: Others; Disability: No Disability; Moderate Disability, Severe Disability: No Disability; Never voted before: Everyone Else; New Canadians, First-time electors (aged 18–21), Abstainer: Everyone Else; NEET: Everyone Else.

Table 5. The socio-demographic and group correlates of decision burden (OLS estimations)

Decision	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
18-24	0.282***	0.283***	0.285***	0.286***	0.169***	0.234***	0.285***
	(0.021)	(0.021)	(0.021)	(0.021)	(0.023)	(0.024)	(0.021)
25-34	0.173***	0.174***	0.180***	0.181***	0.164***	0.161***	0.174***
	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.016)
35-44	0.065***	0.066***	0.072***	0.072***	0.058***	0.057***	0.066***
	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)
55-64	-0.052***	-0.052***	-0.051***	-0.050***	-0.048**	-0.047**	-0.053***
	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)
65+	-0.115***	-0.115***	-0.117***	-0.115***	-0.109***	-0.107***	-0.116***
	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)
Female	0.253***	0.253***	0.246***	0.246***	0.252***	0.252***	0.253***
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Racial Minority	-	-	-0.026*	-0.027*	-0.031**	-0.031**	-0.021
	-	-	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)
Other Language	0.050	0.051	0.055*	0.056*	0.046	0.044	0.055*
	(0.026)	(0.026)	(0.026)	(0.026)	(0.027)	(0.027)	(0.026)
Foreign Born	-	-	-0.026	-0.025	-	-	-0.035**
	-0.043***	-0.044***	-	-	-0.052***	-0.055***	-
	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.013)
Prairies	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-0.100***	-0.101***	-0.101***	-0.101***	-0.101***	-0.101***	-0.101***
	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)
BC	0.066***	0.065***	0.067***	0.068***	0.065***	0.064***	0.065***
	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)
Atlantic	0.028	0.026	0.027	0.028	0.027	0.026	0.026
	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)
Territories	0.046	0.045	0.043	0.044	0.046	0.045	0.043
	(0.056)	(0.056)	(0.056)	(0.056)	(0.056)	(0.056)	(0.056)
Quebec	0.133***	0.132***	0.147***	0.147***	0.135***	0.135***	0.133***
	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)
Low Education	-0.006	-0.006	-0.013	-0.013	-0.023	-0.025	-0.006
	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)
High Education	-0.008	-0.008	0.004	0.005	0.001	-0.003	-0.007
	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Low Income	0.048**	0.048**	0.024	0.021	0.049**	0.041**	0.047**
	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)
High Income	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-0.067***	-0.068***	-0.055***	-0.055***	-0.068***	-0.063***	-0.068***
	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)
Unemployed	0.058*	0.057*	0.044	0.043	0.049	0.046	0.060*
	(0.025)	(0.025)	(0.025)	(0.025)	(0.025)	(0.025)	(0.029)
Student	-0.013	-0.013	-0.010	-0.010	-0.028	-0.006	-0.012
	(0.028)	(0.028)	(0.028)	(0.028)	(0.028)	(0.028)	(0.028)
Retired	0.021	0.021	0.011	0.009	0.018	0.019	0.021
	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)
Caregiver	-0.026	-0.026	-0.036	-0.038	-0.036	-0.039	-0.025
	(0.027)	(0.027)	(0.027)	(0.027)	(0.027)	(0.027)	(0.030)
Other	0.053*	0.052*	0.010	-0.001	0.055*	0.055*	0.052*
	(0.026)	(0.026)	(0.026)	(0.026)	(0.026)	(0.026)	(0.026)
Not Married	0.024*	0.023*	0.021*	0.021*	0.021*	0.024*	0.024*
	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Moved	0.058***	0.059***	0.055***	0.054***	0.057***	0.052***	0.058***
	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)
Indigenous	-0.030	-	-	-	-	-	-
	(0.019)	-	-	-	-	-	-
Indigenous on reserve	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-	-0.198***	-	-	-	-	-
	-	(0.058)	-	-	-	-	-
Indigenous off reserve	-	-0.012	-	-	-	-	-
	-	(0.020)	-	-	-	-	-
Disability	-	-	0.133***	-	-	-	-
	-	-	(0.010)	-	-	-	-
Moderate Disability	-	-	-	0.124***	-	-	-
	-	-	-	(0.011)	-	-	-
Severe Disability	-	-	-	0.166***	-	-	-
	-	-	-	(0.018)	-	-	-
Never voted before	-	-	-	-	0.257***	-	-
	-	-	-	-	(0.020)	-	-
New Canadians	-	-	-	-	-	0.102	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.100)	-
First-time electors (aged 18–21)	-	-	-	-	-	-0.006	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.035)	-
Abstainer	-	-	-	-	-	0.348***	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.022)	-
NEET	-	-	-	-	-	-	-0.005
	-	-	-	-	-	-	(0.040)
Constant	0.761***	0.761***	0.717***	0.717***	0.759***	0.758***	0.763***
	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)
Observations	41578	41577	41574	41574	41452	41452	41578
R2	0.053	0.053	0.057	0.057	0.056	0.058	0.053

Standard errors in parentheses
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Note: Reference categories are the following: Age: 45–54; Gender: Male; Racial Minority: White; Other Language: English/French; Foreign Born: Born in Canada; Regions: Ontario; Education: Medium Education; Income: Medium; Employment: Employed; Not Married: Married; Moved: Not Moved; Indigenous: Not Indigenous; Indigenous on reserve, Indigenous off reserve: Others; Disability: No Disability; Moderate Disability, Severe Disability: No Disability; Never voted before: Everyone Else; New Canadians, First-time electors (aged 18–21), Abstainer: Everyone Else; NEET: Everyone Else.

Table 6. The socio-demographic and group correlates of polling station burden
(OLS estimations)

Polling Station	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
18-24	0.142***	0.140***	0.135***	0.139***	0.013	0.072***	0.137***
	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.014)	(0.015)	(0.014)
25-34	0.111***	0.109***	0.116***	0.120***	0.100***	0.097***	0.111***
	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
35-44	0.040***	0.039***	0.046***	0.048***	0.032***	0.030***	0.039***
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
55-64	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-0.078***	-0.079***	-0.074***	-0.071***	-0.070***	-0.069***	-0.076***
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
65+	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-0.127***	-0.127***	-0.123***	-0.114***	-0.114***	-0.112***	-0.123***
	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)
Female	0.011*	0.012*	0.004	0.003	0.011	0.011	0.012*
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Racial Minority	-	-	0.069***	0.064***	0.065***	0.065***	0.075***
	-	-	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Other Language	-0.008	-0.009	-0.022	-0.021	-0.032	-0.034*	-0.023
	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.017)
Foreign Born	0.032***	0.033***	0.013	0.016	-0.015	-0.017*	0.003
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Prairies	-0.021**	-0.019*	-0.016*	-0.014	-0.016*	-0.016*	-0.017*
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
BC	0.018*	0.018*	0.022*	0.026**	0.020*	0.019*	0.020*
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Atlantic	-0.004	-0.003	0.003	0.005	-0.001	-0.002	0.001
	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)
Territories	-0.014	-0.012	-0.001	-0.000	0.003	0.002	-0.002
	(0.035)	(0.035)	(0.035)	(0.035)	(0.035)	(0.035)	(0.035)
Quebec	0.028***	0.029***	0.044***	0.049***	0.031***	0.031***	0.029***
	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Low Education	0.057***	0.056***	0.048***	0.045***	0.038***	0.036***	0.056***
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.008)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
High Education	-	-	-0.020**	-0.017**	-	-	-
	-0.031***	-0.032***	-	-	-0.024***	-0.027***	-0.034***
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Low Income	0.135***	0.135***	0.109***	0.095***	0.136***	0.129***	0.136***
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
High Income	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-0.058***	-0.057***	-0.041***	-0.039***	-0.056***	-0.052***	-0.056***
	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Unemployed	0.049**	0.049**	0.031	0.025	0.032*	0.030	0.055**
	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.018)
Student	0.004	0.004	0.003	0.006	-0.016	0.003	-0.000
	(0.018)	(0.018)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.018)
Retired	0.018	0.018	0.007	-0.001	0.016	0.016	0.019
	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Caregiver	0.055**	0.054**	0.046**	0.035*	0.047**	0.044*	0.063***
	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.017)	(0.019)
Other	0.150***	0.151***	0.102***	0.047**	0.152***	0.152***	0.152***
	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)
Not Married	0.024***	0.025***	0.019**	0.019**	0.020**	0.023***	0.023***
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Moved	0.106***	0.106***	0.103***	0.100***	0.107***	0.103***	0.107***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
Indigenous	0.099***	-	-	-	-	-	-
	(0.012)	-	-	-	-	-	-
Indigenous on reserve	-	0.278***	-	-	-	-	-
	-	(0.036)	-	-	-	-	-
Indigenous off reserve	-	0.080***	-	-	-	-	-
	-	(0.012)	-	-	-	-	-
Disability	-	-	0.155***	-	-	-	-
	-	-	(0.006)	-	-	-	-
Moderate Disability	-	-	-	0.112***	-	-	-
	-	-	-	(0.007)	-	-	-
Severe Disability	-	-	-	0.325***	-	-	-
	-	-	-	(0.011)	-	-	-
Never voted before	-	-	-	-	0.273***	-	-
	-	-	-	-	(0.013)	-	-
New Canadians	-	-	-	-	-	0.125*	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.062)	-
First-time electors (aged 18–21)	-	-	-	-	-	0.038	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.022)	-
Abstainer	-	-	-	-	-	0.355***	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.014)	-
NEET	-	-	-	-	-	-	-0.023
	-	-	-	-	-	-	(0.025)
Constant	0.304***	0.304***	0.246***	0.244***	0.294***	0.293***	0.298***
	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)	(0.010)
Observations	41893	41892	41889	41889	41750	41750	41893
R2	0.061	0.061	0.075	0.082	0.072	0.076	0.061

Standard errors in parentheses
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Note: Reference categories are the following: Age: 45–54; Gender: Male; Racial Minority: White; Other Language: English/French; Foreign Born: Born in Canada; Regions: Ontario; Education: Medium Education; Income: Medium; Employment: Employed; Not Married: Married; Moved: Not Moved; Indigenous: Not Indigenous; Indigenous on reserve, Indigenous off reserve: Others; Disability: No Disability; Moderate Disability, Severe Disability: No Disability; Never voted before: Everyone Else; New Canadians, First-time electors (aged 18–21), Abstainer: Everyone Else; NEET: Everyone Else.

Table 7. The Socio-Demographic and Group Correlates of Casting a Ballot Burden
(OLS estimations)

Casting ballot	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
18-24	0.118***	0.117***	0.109***	0.111***	0.008	0.066***	0.104***
	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.012)	(0.013)	(0.014)	(0.013)
25-34	0.064***	0.063***	0.067***	0.069***	0.054***	0.051***	0.058***
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
35-44	0.031***	0.031***	0.035***	0.035***	0.025**	0.023**	0.029***
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
55-64	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-0.049***	-0.049***	-0.044***	-0.042***	-0.040***	-0.039***	-0.045***
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
65+	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-0.101***	-0.101***	-0.094***	-0.089***	-0.086***	-0.084***	-0.094***
	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)
Female	0.005	0.006	0.000	-0.000	0.005	0.005	0.006
	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.005)
Racial Minority	-	-	0.101***	0.098***	0.096***	0.096***	0.105***
	-	-	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Other Language	0.027	0.027	0.006	0.007	-0.001	-0.003	0.005
	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)
Foreign Born	0.045***	0.045***	0.014	0.016*	-0.008	-0.010	0.007
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
Prairies	-0.017*	-0.016*	-0.014	-0.013	-0.014	-0.014	-0.015*
	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
BC	0.035***	0.035***	0.038***	0.040***	0.036***	0.035***	0.037***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
Atlantic	0.004	0.005	0.012	0.013	0.009	0.008	0.011
	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.011)
Territories	-0.059	-0.058	-0.050	-0.050	-0.048	-0.049	-0.051
	(0.033)	(0.033)	(0.033)	(0.033)	(0.033)	(0.033)	(0.033)
Quebec	0.074***	0.074***	0.087***	0.089***	0.078***	0.078***	0.076***
	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Low Education	0.072***	0.071***	0.064***	0.062***	0.053***	0.051***	0.069***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
High Education	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-0.036***	-0.037***	-0.029***	-0.028***	-0.031***	-0.035***	-0.039***
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Low Income	0.061***	0.061***	0.041***	0.034***	0.060***	0.054***	0.060***
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
High Income	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	-0.051***	-0.051***	-0.037***	-0.036***	-0.048***	-0.044***	-0.048***
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Unemployed	0.021	0.021	0.006	0.003	0.008	0.006	0.001
	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.017)
Student	-0.008	-0.007	-0.010	-0.008	-0.026	-0.007	-0.009
	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)
Retired	-0.008	-0.008	-0.015	-0.019*	-0.009	-0.008	-0.008
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Caregiver	0.035*	0.035*	0.030	0.025	0.030	0.027	0.024
	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.017)
Other	0.041**	0.042**	0.007	-0.021	0.043**	0.044**	0.042**
	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)	(0.015)
Not Married	0.003	0.003	-0.001	-0.001	-0.001	0.002	0.002
	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.006)
Moved	0.041***	0.041***	0.039***	0.038***	0.042***	0.038***	0.042***
	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.008)
Indigenous	0.088***	-	-	-	-	-	-
	(0.011)	-	-	-	-	-	-
Indigenous on reserve	-	0.213***	-	-	-	-	-
	-	(0.034)	-	-	-	-	-
Indigenous off reserve	-	0.075***	-	-	-	-	-
	-	(0.012)	-	-	-	-	-
Disability	-	-	0.110***	-	-	-	-
	-	-	(0.006)	-	-	-	-
Moderate Disability	-	-	-	0.088***	-	-	-
	-	-	-	(0.006)	-	-	-
Severe Disability	-	-	-	0.197***	-	-	-
	-	-	-	(0.011)	-	-	-
Never voted before	-	-	-	-	0.227***	-	-
	-	-	-	-	(0.012)	-	-
New Canadians	-	-	-	-	-	0.061	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.058)	-
First-time electors (aged 18–21)	-	-	-	-	-	-0.006	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.021)	-
Abstainer	-	-	-	-	-	0.311***	-
	-	-	-	-	-	(0.013)	-
NEET	-	-	-	-	-	-	0.048*
	-	-	-	-	-	-	(0.023)
Constant	0.286***	0.286***	0.237***	0.236***	0.270***	0.269***	0.275***
	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)	(0.009)
Observations	41856	41855	41852	41852	41713	41713	41856
R2	0.039	0.039	0.050	0.052	0.050	0.055	0.043

Standard errors in parentheses
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Note: Reference categories are the following: Age: 45–54; Gender: Male; Racial Minority: White; Other Language: English/French; Foreign Born: Born in Canada; Regions: Ontario; Education: Medium Education; Income: Medium; Employment: Employed; Not Married: Married; Moved: Not Moved; Indigenous: Not Indigenous; Indigenous on reserve, Indigenous off reserve: Others; Disability: No Disability; Moderate Disability, Severe Disability: No Disability; Never voted before: Everyone Else; New Canadians, First-time electors (aged 18–21), Abstainer: Everyone Else; NEET: Everyone Else.

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